Journal of the Belarusian State University. International Relations
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China’s engagement in global health governance through cooperation with African states
The article examines how Chinese health policy has evolved in the context of global governance by focusing on its cooperation with African states. It analyses the historical development of the China’s health assistance, the evolution of China – Africa cooperation under the Forum on China – Africa cooperation, the Belt and road initiative, and the concept of the health silk road. The article focuses in particular on the political and institutional dimensions of China’s participation in global health governance, including its engagement with the World Health Organisation and regional bodies, especially the African Union. It also reviews the main forms of health cooperation: the deployment of medical teams, the construction and upgrading of health infrastructure, infectious disease control, and support for pharmaceutical production. China’s model of health cooperation combines pragmatic foreign policy interests with a discourse of global solidarity and sustainable development. The article concludes that China is expanding health cooperation with African states through multiple frameworks while presenting this engagement as part of its commitment to multilateral cooperation and the achievement of the Sustainable development goals.
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Negotiations as a non-judicial means of settling international disputes: theoretical and practical issues
This article examines the theory and practice of direct negotiations as a non-judicial means of settling disputes concerning the interpretation and application of treaties. It considers the place and function of negotiations in the contemporary system of international dispute settlement, particularly given the growing practice of treating negotiations as a preliminary step before recourse to international judicial bodies. The author analyses in detail the case law of the International Court of Justice and other international courts and tribunals on whether the parties have engaged in good-faith negotiations before seizing an international judicial body. Drawing on international jurisprudence and doctrinal writing, the article highlights the advantages of negotiations, the legal criteria for assessing their quality, and their principal standards and stages. It concludes that direct negotiations remain an important means of settling disputes between states, as well as disputes involving states and foreign natural or legal persons. At the same time, it emphasises the need to avoid a merely formal approach to nego­tiations when addressing disputes concerning the interpretation and application of treaties before referring to international adjudication.
The impact of artificial intelligence on digital integration prospects in the Eurasian Economic Union and the Union State
This article examines the geopolitical risks and security risks arising from the rapid deployment of artificial intelligence in the absence of binding international legal standards. As states increasingly apply artificial intelligence in military contexts, it has acquired clear dual-use characteristics, which may intensify geopolitical competition and security dilemmas. For the member states of the Eurasian Economic Union, this trend constitutes a significant contemporary challenge. Because international legal regulation remains fragmented, states are independently developing national regulatory frameworks for artificial intelligence systems. Divergent national approaches, uneven technological development among states, and the acceleration of artificial intelligence related arms competition compound these difficulties. The article analyses the economic, humanitarian, and military risks associated with artificial intelligence and proposes strategies to address these regulatory gaps, contextualised within the national interests of the Republic of Belarus and its partners in regional integration alliances. The author concludes that deeper digital integration and the establishment of a «belt of digital good-neighbourliness» may contribute to sustainable development and the protection of national sovereignty in the contemporary technological landscape.
Security initiatives of the Russian Federation, the Republic of Belarus, and the People’s Republic of China: theoretical and practical aspects
This article examines changes introduced since 2022 in the strategic and doctrinal documents of the Russian Federation, the Republic of Belarus, and the People’s Republic of China, as well as the practical security initiatives advanced by these states in response to the changing international order and current global situation. The 2023 Foreign policy concept of the Russian Federation introduced new regional categories and revised foreign policy priorities. The 2024 Concept of national security of the Republic of Belarus incorporated new concepts, including «biological security» and «electoral sovereignty». The People’s Republic of China, for its part, has put forward the Global security initiative, which is based on cooperation among states, the rejection of bloc confrontation, and the peaceful coexistence of peoples. The article argues that the foundations of the existing international security system require reassessment, given its limited effectiveness and the extent to which it is increasingly disregarded by many international actors. It also evaluates the security initiatives proposed by the Russian Federation, the Republic of Belarus, and the People’s Republic of China, considering their prospects for implementation and their potential to gain support from other states.
Eurasian charter of diversity and multipolarity in the 21st century
The evolution of China’s approach to Africa: towards a community with a shared future for mankind
This article examines the historical evolution of China’s engagement with African states and its progression towards building a community with a shared future for mankind. The analysis focuses on two main questions: how China’s approach to Africa has changed over time, and how the shared future vision has been advanced in practice on the continent. The study identifies four stages in the evolution of China – Africa relations: political support and assistance, economic cooperation and joint development, institutionalised cooperation, and the current focus on building of China – Africa community with a shared future. The article further shows that this vision has been advanced in Africa primarily through regional China – Africa cooperation and only subsequently through bilateral relations. This process has already produced substantial results in the political, economic and social spheres. Ultimately, the movement of China and Africa towards a shared future represents an important practical contribution to the consolidation of the Global South and to strengthening its role in global governance.
evolution of the China’s approach to Africa
community with a shared future for mankind
Vatican and Africa in the 21st century: strategy, institutional presence and pastoral policy
This article analyses the Holy See’s relationship with Africa in the 21st century. It investigates the Vatican’s institutional presence and the demographic and pastoral potential of African Catholicism. Furthermore, the study evaluates the church’s peacekeeping and humanitarian efforts and the role of African clergy in the Holy See’s global papal policies. The paper highlights Pope Francis’ strategy and the potential for policy continuity under his successor, Leo XIV, including engagement with the African episcopate, institutional appointments, and priorities for global social justice. Ultimately, the analysis demonstrates the reciprocal influence between Africa and the Vatican and underscores Africa’s central role in the church’s pastoral, diplomatic, and institutional activity.
Transnational security: concept, system, and responses to contemporary challenges and threats
From the standpoint of contemporary international law, this article examines the formation of a new collective security framework – transnational security. It addresses the concept and characteristics of transnational security, its relationship to collective and national security, and the institutional aspects of its mechanisms. The study of transnational security offers a more integrated and up-to-date perspective on international security as a whole. Transnational security addresses challenges and threats beyond exclusive national jurisdiction that are not adequately addressed by the existing collective security arrangements envisaged in Chapter VIII of the UN Charter. Transnational security emerges from international legal cooperation targeting cross-border organised crime and associated threats, including terrorism, cybercrime, armed conflict, illicit economies, emergencies, corruption, and unlawful activities by non-state actors.
From European tradition to Latin American reality: toward establishing the role of Advocate General in the Court of Justice of the Andean Community
This article examines the office of the Advocate General at the Court of Justice of the European Union and evaluates the case for its incorporation into the Court of Justice of the Andean Community. Using comparative analysis, it delineates the functions, contributions, and institutional guarantees that define the Advocate General in the European context, highlighting its role in ensuring jurisprudential coherence, the development of law, and the legitimacy of supranational adjudication. The article further analyses the historical, political, and budgetary reasons for the absence of this office in the Andean system, including national sovereignty concerns, the economic-commercial emphasis of integration, and the Andean Community’s financial constraints. Drawing on the existing Andean legal framework, it identifies the normative and procedural mechanisms required to introduce an Advocate General within the Court of Justice of the Andean Community. The article argues that such adoption would strengthen homogeneity, the unity of the legal order, and the transparency of decision-making. Finally, it contends that this reform would enhance judicial dialogue between the Court of Justice of the Andean Community, Court of Justice of the European Union and other international courts, thereby consolidating member state and legal practitioner confidence in the regional integration system.
Court of Justice of the Andean Community
China’s policy towards the African Union: forging a strategic partnership
The People’s Republic of China has been developing a strategic partnership with the African Union in order to strengthen its continental influence through expanded economic cooperation, security engagement, and diplomatic support. This article analyses Chinese white papers and other policy documents on its approach to Africa, examines how it formulates and implements its foreign policy strategy towards a continental regional organisation, and identifies the main areas of cooperation. Crucially, while deepening bilateral relations with African states, China increasingly promotes multilateral frameworks, positioning the African Union as central force to consolidating regionalism and advancing Chinese interests. Engagement with the African Union secures support for Chinese initiatives at regional and global levels. Aligning the Belt and road initiative with the African Union’s Agenda 2063 ensures coordinated, complementary efforts towards socio-economic advancement and multi-level security provision.
Japanese authorities’ policy toward the Jewish diaspora in Harbin (1931–1937)
After the 1917 October Revolution and the Russian Civil War, Russian Jews settled in Harbin, forming the Far East’s largest Jewish community by 1920. This article examines the difficult years of the Jewish diaspora in Harbin from 1931 to 1937, through some dimensions: identity of its status in Manchukuo, persecution by Russian fascists, and Japanese suppression of dissent. Drawing on archival sources and literature, it is shown that Japanese policy entailed systematic oppression, economic exploitation, and harsh repression, largely executed in collaboration with the antisemitic All-Russian fascist party.
The mandate and operational approach of the Asia – Pacific Economic Cooperation
Established in 1989, the Asia – Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) facilitates economic cooperation and integration among its 21 member economies. Unlike other regional international organisations, APEC employs a consensus-driven, non-binding framework. Nevertheless, it effectively advances regional free trade. This paper examines APEC’s mandate and competence, contrasting its voluntary approach with the binding frameworks of organisations like the EU and ASEAN. It argues that APEC’s efficacy derives from its flexibility, reliance on voluntary action plans, and use of soft law instruments, which support regional alignment while respecting national sovereignty. The paper concludes that institutionalising capacitybuilding initiatives, particularly in domains such as digital trade and environmental sustainability, could strengthen APEC’s ability to respond to contemporary economic challenges without resorting to binding commitments.
non-binding frameworknon-binding framework
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The challenges of implementing the Belt and road initiative
Launched in 2013, the Belt and road initiative proposed new land and sea corridors to enhance global logistics connectivity. China presented this initiative as a new cooperation framework in international affairs, grounded in openness, inclusiveness, and mutual advantage. At the same time, the declared objectives and operational scope of the mentioned initiative have raised concerns regarding its potential to project Chinese hegemony, which presents significant implementation challenges. Competition from established regional economic integration projects constitutes a further obstacle. These initiatives encompass multilateral associations such as the EAEU and the ASEAN, alongside national strategies like Mongolia’s «Steppe road», Indonesia’s «Maritime axis of peace», and South Korea’s «K-Silk Road». Regional disputes compound these difficulties, particularly the India – Pakistan conflict and civil wars across the Arab world. This study examines these impediments and evaluates China’s proposed strategies to address them.
Regional dimension of implementing humanitarian initiatives within the community with a shared future for mankind: China’s cooperation with African states
This article elucidates Africa’s considerable role in shaping a community with a shared future for mankind. It analyses the core elements and practical implications of the recent initiative «Jointly building an all-weather China – Africa community with a shared future in the new era» announced by Xi Jinping at the 2024 Forum on China – Africa cooperation. This is a landmark initiative, representing a significant diplomatic achievement for African nations. The study contends that China’s humanitarian assistance and its broad engagement with Africa in areas such as culture, education, healthcare, and infrastructure are anchored in the idea of a shared future, ensuring equitable partnership and reciprocal advantage. The analysis further demonstrates that the South Africa, amidst intensified China – Africa collaboration, serves as an effective intermediary between China and the wider continent. Through bilateral and multilateral engagement, notably within BRICS and international organisations, the South Africa actively advances the goal of a shared future for mankind.
Between principle and practice: the illusion of neutrality in international conflict mediation
In contemporary international relations, mediator neutrality exists largely as a declarative ideal that conflicts with the realities of political and economic interests. Mediation practices by the UN, the OSCE, the African Union, and states such as Norway, Qatar, Indonesia, the US, and China demonstrate that impartiality is systematically compromised by structural factors. These factors include geopolitical priorities and the mediator’s asymmetrical perceptions of conflicting parties. The analysis contrasts American and Chinese approaches to mediation: while Washington integrates mediation with the promotion of its values, Beijing emphasises economic pragmatism without abandoning engagement. The article examines three dimensions of neutrality (institutional, strategic, and perceptual) revealing its contingent nature. Findings suggest modern mediation functions as a «diplomacy of the possible», where strict neutrality yields to tactical flexibility, and negotiation effectiveness correlates with transparency regarding mediators’ interests.
Divergent paths in digital sovereignty: a comparative analysis of EU and US regulatory and strategic frameworks
This study compares how the EU and the US pursue digital sovereignty as a component of national digital security policy. The analysis examines the normative and legal frameworks of each actor, as well as their engagement on international platforms. It also explores the EU’s multilateralist orientation alongside the US’ alliance-building and leadership-focused paradigm. Through case studies, it identifies the challenges and risks each faces in implementing information sovereignty strategies and evaluates the diplomatic and legal ramifications of their respective approaches. The analysis also tracks shifts in US perspectives on collaboration with traditional partners. The conclusion assesses prospects for reconciling US and EU approaches within transatlantic relations.
China – Belarus relations: implementation of the foundations of all-weather and comprehensive strategic partnership in global politics
This article examines the evolution of China – Belarus cooperation following the elevation of their bilateral relations to all-weather and comprehensive strategic partnership at the 2022 Shanghai Cooperation Organisation summit in Samarkand. The analysis focuses on two main dimensions: collaboration in political, economic, and humanitarian spheres at the bilateral level, and multilateral engagement through regional and global institutions. The findings indicate that, in the political sphere, Belarus and China strive to consolidate their respective national interests and foreign policy priorities. Strong political trust between the two states has facilitated Belarus’ accession to the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and its designation as a BRICS partner country. Economically, both parties have registered notable results through Belt and road initiative projects. Together, China and Belarus endeavour to build a community with a shared future for mankind as a new paradigm of international relations.
UN initiatives to address forced migration in Africa in the early 21st century
This article examines core UN initiatives on forced migration in Africa from 2001 to 2010, drawing on reports from the UN High Commissioner for Refugees to the 56–66th UN General Assembly sessions and other relevant UN documents. Key initiatives assessed include the Global consultations on international protection, Convention plus, Dialogue on voluntary repatriation and sustainable reintegration in Africa, Ten-point plan of action, and High Commissioner’s Dialogue on protection challenges. The study finds that the UN has played a significant role in advancing international cooperation on forced migration in Africa. Several approaches proved successful, some ongoing, others concluded. The study emphasises the importance of beginning coordination between international and regional structures, expanding legal frameworks and more effective durable solutions. It also addresses issues such as protracted displacement scenarios, theoretical-practical disconnects, insufficient data, and emerging crises. Critically, the study calls for ongoing work on the underlying drivers of forced migration.
The energy dimension in the relations between China and Angola
Energy profoundly shapes global politics and economic processes. This article examines the significance of energy in the evolving relationship between China and Angola, and evaluates the efficacy of this engagement. By comparing indicators across different periods of China’s foreign policy, the study identifies a consistent increase in China’s interest in the energy sector and a growing demand for imported resources. Angola possesses abundant natural resources and seeks to leverage these assets to stabilise its economic growth and expand international cooperation. Its withdrawal from OPEC has further intensified efforts to secure Chinese investment for modernising its oil infrastructure and refining capacity. This energy-centric cooperation is presented as mutually advantageous: Angola employs a strategy of securing Chinese finance, while China pursues a strategy of augmenting its geopolitical standing.
The foreign policy of the second Trump administration: intentions and capabilities
This article challenges the prevailing view that the second Trump administration’s foreign policies are merely provocative and unpredictable. Several key characteristics of its international approach were already evident during D. Trump’s first term, others were shaped by enduring US interests, available resources, and the new geopolitical context after 2022. Understanding the shifts in Washington’s international approach requires examining D. Trump’s stated intentions and capabilities. By early 2025, at least four intentions had become apparent: expanding US-controlled territories, containing the influence of China, brokering a ceasefire in the Russia – Ukraine special military operation, and compelling allies to increase their financial and strategic contributions to Western defence. The administration deploys four primary capabilities to advance these goals: America’s substantial technological advantages, extensive financial and economic resources, soft power through free-market ideology, and military strength encompassing conventional forces and nuclear deterrence. When viewed through this framework of intentions and capabilities, D. Trump’s foreign policy appears considerably more coherent.
A hidden function of US secondary sanctions: blocking the right to development
This article strengthens existing arguments that US secondary sanctions violate international law. It proposes that they constitute a restrictive business practice that obstructs the right to development. Such sanctions penalise trade and competition that economists consider essential for development. By deterring foreign companies from doing business with states or major economic actors targeted by US primary sanctions, secondary sanctions effectively reserve the target’s market for US companies once sanctions are lifted. Secondary sanctions, operating internationally, meet the definition of restrictive business practices that the UN Conference on trade and development has sought to curtail domestically. It may therefore offer a mechanism for challenging them on such grounds.
China as an emerging rule-maker in multilateral intellectual property cooperation
This article explores China’s evolving role in multilateral cooperation on international intellectual property. It traces China’s transformation from a rule-taker to a rule-maker, examining the historical developments, driving forces, practical actions, challenges, and future outlook. The international intellectual property system, a central element of global economic governance, is undergoing significant change. At the same time, China, now the world’s second-largest economy, is redefining its position in ways that reflect its domestic development, advances in the rule of law, and broader shifts in international power structures towards multipolarity. Through historical analysis and case studies, the article assesses the impact of this evolution on global intellectual property governance and offers recommendations for future development.
When and where will state-based conflicts occur in the remaining 21st century?
This study seeks to identify the timing and location of state-based conflicts in the remaining 21st century and to estimate the probability of future state-based conflicts by world regions. The methodology employs a four-step forecasting model utilising wavelet analysis to predict death estimates from state-based conflicts before 2100. These estimates generate forecasts of the probability of state-based conflicts in each world region over the next decades. The findings suggest that before 2100, the probability of state-based conflicts, measured by resulting fatalities as a proxy, is estimated at 54 % in Asia and Oceania (excluding the Middle East), 31 % in Africa, 8 % in Europe, 6 % in the Americas, and 0 % in the Middle East.
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International cooperation on migration in Africa in the 1950s: an analysis of UN High Commissioner for Refugees reports
This article analyses United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees reports to the United Nations General Assembly (sessions 6–16), examining international cooperation on forced migration in Africa through UN High Commissioner for Refugees activities. The study concludes that the 1950s marked the beginning of dynamic international cooperation in migration. As decolonization began, migration patterns shifted towards forced displacement. UN High Commissioner for Refugees, initially responsible for a small number of persons of concern, gradually expanded its programmes across regions. States and international organisations supported these efforts through resettlement and local assistance programmes. The Algerian crisis highlighted the need to broaden the scope of the 1951 Convention relating to the status of refugees. The 1950s can be divided into two distinct phases: 1951–1956, when international bodies first engaged with African migration issues, and 1957–1960, marked by an active emergency response to forced migration.
Features and trends in the development of Sino-Russian cooperation in the field of non-traditional security
The concept of non-traditional security has gained widespread recognition among states in recent decades. For regional and international powers like China and Russia, the non-traditional security domain assumes even greater significance than traditional security during peacetime. These two countries have a longstanding history of cooperation in non-traditional security areas. Amidst the significant geopolitical shifts characterising the contemporary world, both China and Russia have intensified their collaborative efforts in this domain, focusing primarily on scientific and technological, financial, energy, and agricultural sectors. This article analyses the recent developments in Sino-Russian cooperation across these sectors, highlighting notable achievements and persistent challenges. An examination of the tangible outcomes reveals substantial financial investments, close and complementary bilateral partnerships driven by pragmatism, and a positive overall trajectory of development. While certain challenges remain, these are unlikely to impede the accelerating pace of cooperation. It is anticipated that Sino-Russian collaboration in non-traditional security will continue to deepen and broaden in the future.
Cooperation between China and ASEAN states within the Belt and road initiative: education, culture, and tourism
The Belt and road initiative, launched by China in 2013, has not only fostered the expansion of economic and political ties but also served as a catalyst for intensified cultural and humanitarian cooperation between the peoples of China and the ASEAN member states. The considerable potential for enhanced interaction is largely attributed to the inherent geographical proximity of these states. This article identifies and examines the distinctive characteristics of cultural and people-to-people interactions across three principal domains: education, culture, and tourism. Particular attention is paid to analysing successful initiatives and practices that contribute to deepening mutual understanding and respect between China and ASEAN members. These include cultural festivals, joint university alliances, cultural tourism weeks, and tourism initiatives. The author concludes that ASEAN states’ participation in the Belt and road intiative has enhanced the ties between China and these nations in the realms of education, culture, and tourism, thereby reinforcing regional interconnectedness and laying a solid foundation for friendship between their peoples.
Regional аviation diplomacy of the Republic of Belarus and its strategic partners
A robust aviation sector is a source of pride for many nations. The possession of national air carriers (both passenger and cargo), maintenance facilities, advanced air navigation systems, and airports capable of accommodating diverse aircraft is a significant symbol of modernity and international engagement for many states. As societies evolve and international engagements expand, aviation diplomacy is becoming a crucial instrument in the foreign policy strategies of numerous states, including Belarus. The author of this article examines the regional aspects of aviation diplomacy between Belarus and its strategic partners, China and Russia, analyses government documents and cooperative outcomes within the Belarus – China aviation relationship and explores the potential for expanding air routes linking Belarus, China, and Russia.
regional cooperation through aviation connectivity
China’s foreign policy under Xi Jinping: from the Belt and road initiative to a community with a shared future for mankind
The author of the article examines the evolution of China’s foreign policy since Xi Jinping’s ascension to General Secretary of the Communist party of China Central Committee and subsequent leadership of the country. The analysis centres on Xi Jinping’s global cooperation initiatives, specifically the Belt and road initiative and the concept of a community with a shared future for mankind. These initiatives represent significant innovations in China’s diplomatic approach. The study concludes that both the Belt and road initiative and the community with a shared future for mankind are predicated on mutually beneficial, responsible, and equitable cooperation. Furthermore, the implementation of these initiatives within the international political framework positions China, under Xi Jinping’s leadership, as a predominant actor.
Conceptual foundations of the People’s Republic of Сhina’s international development assistance policy
The People’s Republic of China is a major actor in global international development assistance. This article analyses white papers and other official documents related to China’s international development assistance policy. Through detailed examination, the objectives, principles, and priority areas are identified, highlighting contemporary trend which is shifting from the terms “aid” and “donor – recipient relationships” to “partnership” and “international development cooperation”. It is concluded that China actively employs development assistance as a tool in its foreign policy, enabling it to achieve national goals, increase its political and economic influence in the international arena, strengthen the legitimacy of its actions, and promote the Belt and road initiative and the construction of a global community of shared future.
The impact of increased international migration on French immigration policy
In this article the author looks into the transformation of French immigration policy under the influence of burgeoning international migration. Initially focused on controlling of labour market access, the policy has evolved to encompass immigrant integration and citizenship criteria. This shift marks a transition from restrictive to selective immigration regulation, with the French establishment viewing it as a means to depoliticise the immigration issue. However, the challenge of successfully integrating of non-European immigrants into French society remains unresolved, largely due to the perceived supremacy of French culture over those of African and Asian origins.
International cooperation in combating online sexual acts against children during armed conflicts: context of the UN draft Convention against cybercrime
The draft text of the UN Convention against cybercrime represents a significant collaborative effort by the UN Ad Hoc Committee, member states, and various stakeholders. However, additional considerations are warranted, particularly regarding the detrimental impact of cybercrime on human rights during armed conflicts. Children, as the most vulnerable social group in such scenarios, are at heightened risk of both offline and online sexual exploitation and abuse. In the absence of a robust legal framework, authorities in conflict zones are unlikely to engage effectively in international cooperation to combat these transnational crimes. Therefore, it is imperative to include a specific provision within the draft convention to ensure its applicability in addressing transnational crimes related to child pornography and other forms of online sexual exploitation and abuse of children during armed conflicts.